Gill, 'Murlo and the Etruscans: Art and Society in Ancient Etruria', Bryn Mawr Classical Review 9506
URL = http://hegel.lib.ncsu.edu/stacks/serials/bmcr/bmcr-9506-gill-murlo

@@@@95.6.6, De Puma and Small, Murlo and the Etruscans

Richard Daniel De Puma and Jocelyn Penny Small (edd.), <i>Murlo
and the Etruscans: Art and Society in Ancient Etruria</i>.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994. Pp. xxxii + 251,
208 figs. $45.00. ISBN 0-299-13910-7.

     Reviewed by David W.J. Gill -- University of Wales, Swansea 
          D.W.J.Gill@Swansea.ac.uk

     The series of twenty essays form a commemorative honor to
Kyle M. Phillips, Jr., excavator of Murlo. Most of the
contributors have been involved in the excavations which were
started in 1966 and "came of age" in 1987; half of them were
former students of Phillips at Bryn Mawr. The volume includes a
short essay on Phillips (who died in 1988) as well as his
bibliography.

     Part 1 consists of 11 essays relating to the excavations at
Poggio Civitate (Murlo). Ingrid D. Rowland discusses "Early
attestations of the name 'Poggio Civitate'". The name is first
attested in 1318, and Rowland draws attention to the plural
concept of "Cities" and speculates about its interpretation as "a
political center, the seat of a strong local league" (p. 3). The
lack of evidence for habitation might be seen as supporting
evidence for this theory.

     David and Francesca Ridgway's essay "Demaratus and the
archaeologists" sits uncomfortably in Part 1 as it deals with
broader questions about links between Etruria and the Greek
world, and specifically Corinth. They review the evidence for the
introduction of architectural terracottas, especially at Caere
and Acquarossa. The way that they draw attention to different
"schools" of coroplasts a generation after the supposed date of
Demaratus (p. 7) merely serves to remind us about the limited
nature of the documentary evidence. At times factoids pose as
facts: e.g. "Syrian--not Greek--craftsmen" introduced monumental
stone sculpture to Caere and Bologna (p. 8). Likewise their
positivist approach leads them to speculate that wall-paintings
were introduced "probably on the initiative of vase-painters";
the possibility that the influence could be derived from other
media such as textiles is not even considered. Their discussion
of "Corinthian trade with the west before c. 657" depends on the
orthodox chronology, and dissent by H. Bowden ("The chronology of
Greek painted pottery: some observations", <i>Hephaistos</i> 10
(1991) 49-59) as well as Michael Vickers and the late David
Francis ("Greek Geometric pottery at Hama and its implications
for Near Eastern chronology", <i>Levant</i> 17 [1985] 131-38) is
ignored. It is unclear if this shows an unwillingness to engage
in debate, or whether it reflects an unwillingness to revise
one's position formulated over a period of years. Talk of
"expatriate Potters/Painters at Pithekoussai represent a major
Corinthian investment in the West" (p. 12) seems a gross
overstatement in view of recent discussions about the role of
pottery in Greek trade (and at this point in time exchange might
be a better word).

     Ingrid E.M. Edlund-Berry's chapter on "Ritual destruction of
cities and sanctuaries: the 'un-founding' of the Archaic
Monumental Building at Poggio Civitate (Murlo)" is by contrast a
thoughtful piece of work which deserves wide readership by
archaeologists dealing with destruction of sites. The intentional
and ritual death of Murlo is compared with Carthage, Corinth and
Jerusalem (p. 17). There is also a discussion of "cursed" cities
in Italy list by Macrobius. This chapter also includes some
striking aerial views of Gabii and Lucus Feroniae. Her conclusion
is that the complex at Murlo suffered the fate of "a permanent
ritual destruction" (p. 26) which is dated toward the last
quarter of the sixth century BC (p. 16).

     Kyle Phillips' own essay, "Stamped Impasto pottery
manufactured at Poggio Civitate", is a well observed piece which
raises important questions about pottery manufacture at religious
sites. In particular this study focuses on pieces which are
decorated with impressed stamps. Phillips makes the important
observation that the use of the same stamp may reflect not the
work of one individual but the use of the stamp by "a son or
daughter" (p. 36). This is an encouraging recognition that women
may have played a much larger role in pottery manufacture than
has hitherto been recognised (cf. M. Vickers and D. Gill,
<i>Artful Crafts: Ancient Greek Silverware and Pottery</i>
[Oxford 1994] 86). Two tools for making the impressions are also
published.

     The next seven essays deal with the architectural
terracottas from the site.  Wikander presents a catalogue of 59
examples in a chapter on "The Archaic Etruscan sima"; those from
Murlo are nos. 25-27 (p. 55) and they are illustrated in figs.
5.2 (p. 49) and 5.4 (p. 52). One wonders if one can construct
what is presented as a "Hypothetical 'stemma' of Archaic Etruscan
raking simas" (p. 59 fig. 5.5) with so few pieces and without a
more secure absolute chronology. This is highlighted for the
Murlo examples which have been dated by various scholars from
anywhere between 650 BC and 550 BC (p. 55). However there is a
useful observation about the need for architectural terracottas
on buildings of "modest size" (p. 62).

     Erik Nielsen writes on "Interpreting the lateral sima at
Poggio Civitate". The lateral simas from the Upper Building and
the Southeast Building are published in a different form from
elsewhere in the volume (p. 64 figs. 6.1-2; p. 52 fig. 5.4 nos.
25 and 27). The alternating lion heads and female heads are
discussed in connection with a Potnia Theron.

     Nancy A. Winter publishes "A terracotta griffin head from
Poggio Civitate (Murlo)". It is likely to have come from the
Upper Building and may have originally been painted. Winter
suggests that it may have been attached to a cover tile;
stylistically there is a suggestion that it was made by the same
artisan who created the other statues along the roof ridge. There
is a problem here resulting from a dependence on stylistic
chronology. Stylistically the griffin dates to after 650, but the
building itself seems to have been constructed around 600/590 (p.
74).

     Eva Rystedt's "Additional notes on Early Etruscan Akroteria"
supplements her comments in <i>Acquarossa</i> IV (1983). This
chapter further discusses two akroteria, one from Poggio Civitate
and the other from Acquarossa, which had been discussed in the
earlier volume. As such this essay makes little sense unless the
reader has access to the Acquarossa volume (e.g. p. 78,
"Subtracting the unit of PC2 + PC3 (PC II) from the akroteria
..."). The discussion concerning the transfer of motifs is
clearly formulated within a framework that makes little allowance
for material which might not have survived; there is an
acknowledgement that the discussion does in fact rest "on a
somewhat narrow base, and new material may easily threaten the
argument" (p. 81). Her positivist position clearly surfaces when
goldwork is identified as one of the "minor arts"; this is surely
a modern view of what in antiquity was an art form much favoured
by the social elite.

     Jocelyn Penny Small's essay, "Eat, drink and be merry:
Etruscan banquets", must rank as one of the most thoughtful and
useful essays in the volume. It takes as its starting point the
banquet frieze from Murlo (although this is not illustrated in
the volume!). Small makes a plea that a distinction be drawn
between the Etruscan banquet and the Greek symposion. She
provides a useful definition of a banquet, and discusses the
Etruscan iconography against this framework. Although Greek pot
names are borrowed by the Etruscans, this need not be taken to
imply that the social setting is the same (p. 86). Indeed
assemblages of dining equipment point to dining (for say 30
people) rather than for drinking in a more intimate group. Small
estimates that the banquet frieze at Murlo may have shown up to
452 banqueters and suggests that this "would accord with the
interpretation of the site as a center for a religious or
political league" (p. 87). Figures comparing representation of
symposia/banquets on Greek and Etruscan pottery are represented
(p. 87); it might have been helpful to have considered how many
of the Greek scenes comes from an Etruscan context. There are
helpful comments on the use of phialai in Etruscan banquets (p.
90 n. 13) which have implications for the recent debate about the
link between plate and pottery.

     Annette Rathje also considers the frieze of the Upper
Building in her unillustrated chapter, "Banquet and ideology:
some new considerations about banqueting at Poggio Civitate". The
frieze itself consists of four elements--assembly, banquet, horse
race (with at least 90 frieze plaques), and procession --which
may have been displayed on the inside as well as the outside of
the building. As such she adopts a sophisticated way of
interpretation, so often ignored, in her proposal that "we must
try to put ourselves in the position of the ancient viewer and
try to understand his or her understanding of the scenes" (p.
95). As such the different frieze types are interpreted
"interdependently" (p. 95). There is a welcome endorsement of
Martin Bernal's general thesis ("the very inspiring book", p. 99
n. 10) acknowledging "the hegemony of Greek culture in the
educational system of Europe since the eighteenth century, when
it seems to have been necessary to see Greek culture as
uncontaminated by Oriental influence" (p. 96). Such a view allows
Rathje to consider Phoenicians as communicators not only or
Oriental items but also of ideas. It is refreshing to read an
interpretation of drinking cups as metallic, perhaps even of
precious metal (p. 97). Even the possibility that the couches
were made from a precious material such as ivory is considered.
Rathje thus looks east for the imagery of reclining banquets, and
suggests that the Murlo frieze itself adjoins the space in which
banquets would have been held (p. 98).

     Rebecca Hague Sinos presents "Godlike men: a discussion of
the Murlo procession frieze" (which <i>is</i> illustrated!). The
methodology is clearly the opposite to Small's as she wishes to
"offer an interpretation of the procession scene, with reference
to the symbolism of Greek processions in both iconography and
ritual" (p. 100). Attention is drawn to the cart in which there
are two figures. Various interpretations are presented and
discussed: funeral journey; wedding procession; worshippers going
to a sanctuary; dynasts. Clearly elite values are being
presented, but the evidence seems to be insufficient to allow an
interpretation which suggests that the rulers were "recipients of
divine honor" (p. 113).

     Part 2 consists of 9 essays on "Etruscan Art Beyond Murlo"
and as such is less focused and therefore more uneven. Sarah
Leach presents "The Corinthian background of Subgeometric
stamnoid ollas from Veii". This includes an appendix of seven
"Veientine tomb groups containing stamnoid ollas" (pp. 129-30).
The material is presented against the background of early Greek
colonial exploration of Italy and includes a discussion of
"Italian contexts of Corinthian globular pyxides". Euboean
influence is presented as fact (which in reality it is a factoid)
(p. 126); recent discussions surrounding the Phoenician nature of
Al Mina call for caution in this area. As the stamnoid olla from
Monte Michele tomb 5 contained the cremated remains of an adult
male, aged 18-20, Leach has a brief discussion of the
significance of cremation (p. 128).

     P. Gregory Warden's chapter, "Amber, ivory, and the
diffusion of the Orientalizing style along the Adriatic coast:
Italic amber in the University Museum (Philadelphia)", publishes
four amber pendants. The pieces appear to have been excavated in
Italy during the nineteenth century, although their exact
provenance is uncertain. Warden accepts that the four probably
came from the same context, and goes on to try and link them to
Picenum (the source of some of the Hearst gift). As such much of
the chapter is mere speculation.

     Ann Harnwell Ashmead's essay on "Etruscan domesticated cats:
classical conformists or Etruscan originals" is charming.
Eighteen examples in different categories of material are
presented: Etruscan black-figure vases; Etruscan red-figure
vases; Etruscan painted tombs; Etruscan mirrors. Sadly the
illustrations are not integrated with the catalogue. The summary
discusses context, settings, numbers, appearance, color, pose,
human associates, animal associates and themes; but cat owners
will almost certainly enjoy the section on behavior (p. 162).
Etruscan cats are seen siting under their owner's chair, standing
on hind legs to reach for food and even carry small animals in
their mouths'; "no Greek cats do this"! Ashmead concludes with
speculation as to whether or not real cheetahs were kept in
Etruria (p. 162).

     There then follow three iconographical studies. The first by
Lamar Ronald Lacy is on "The flight of Ataiun: a black-figure
amphora of the Orvieto Group and the Running Aktaion". It
concentrates on an Etruscan black-figure amphora from the
Crocefisso del Tufo necropolis at Orvieto which shows Ataiun
surrounded by five hostile dogs. He observes that the iconography
appears to "have drawn directly upon a narrative tradition" (p.
168). There is an appendix of 26 depictions of Ataiun/Aktaion;
all but one appear in L. Guimond's entry on Aktaion in
<i>LIMC</i> I.

     This is followed by two essays discussing the iconography of
Etruscan mirrors. The first by Richard Daniel de Puma, "Eos and
Memnon on Etruscan mirrors", considers four mirrors: one in the
Art Institute of Chicago, one in Cleveland, one in Copenhagen and
a fourth in St Petersburg. Only one of these, the mirror in
Copenhagen, has a stated provenance, Piansano; one can only smile
at the euphemism quoted in connection with the Chicago mirror
which "surfaced" in 1984, "its history can be traced back to a
private British collection" (p. 180). Do we need to accept that
"most mirrors were made for Etruscan women" (p. 186)? In order to
establish this as a fact - or at least to show that mirrors were
associated with women in death - archaeologists would require the
following information: 1) the archaeological context for the
mirror; or 2) an owner's inscription on the mirror. One can only
guess at the percentage of Etruscan mirrors that come from a
secure archaeological context--F.R. Serra Ridgway (<i>ClRev</i>
33 (1983) 292) has suggested "few of the 3000 or so Etruscan
mirrors ... have an archaeological context"--, but how many of
those secure mirrors have been linked to a study of the skeletal
or cremated remains? Until those fundamental questions are
answered, it might seem unwise to speculate about Etruscan women
being either "more literate than their Greek counterparts" or
"much more liberated and apparently more integrated into society
than their Greek (especially Athenian) counterparts" (p. 186).
Thus to read Eos as somebody who "pursues" males, "with a
preference for handsome mortals over stern gods, and this despite
the fact that she is married" (p. 186) seems to be taking a
theory too far. However this reviewer finds more sympathy with
attempts to link Eos and Memnon scenes with death (p. 187),
although he might not feel compelled to associate the iconography
with specific military setbacks. If these mirrors come from
tombs, then their final resting place is with the dead, and this
might be the reason for selecting certain themes.

     Jenifer Neils writes on "Reflections of immortality: the
myth of Jason on Etruscan mirrors". This focuses on scenes of
Jason on two mirrors, one in the British Museum and the other in
the Cabinet des Medailles. On the former HEASUN is administered a
drink from a phiale by METVIA; on the latter a youth emerges from
a cauldron. Jason also appears in scenes with his ingurgitation
by the dragon (p. 192). Clearly scenes linked to "resurrection
and rejuvenation" were considered to be suitable for the Etruscan
tomb. Of course this issue raises much wider questions about
Etruscan funerary contexts. If the iconography of Etruscan
objects was chosen carefully to harmonise with the theme of
death, can we assume that Greek (and especially Attic) pottery,
like the red-figured hydria showing the ram in the cauldron (p.
192 fig. 17.4), were chosen equally for the visual message?

     The next essay by Charlotte Scheffer develops the funerary
motif, "The arched door in late Etruscan funerary art". This
contains an appendix of 54 instances of "Urns, sarcophagi, and
wall paintings with depictions of an arched door" (pp. 204-6).
Scheffer addresses the usual interpretation as the door
representing the entrance to the underworld which is thus
perceived as a city of the dead. She argues that rather the doors
should be read as entrances to tombs, thus forming "the visible
barrier between life and death". She also emphasises the Etruscan
view of "some sort of continued existence in the tomb" (p. 204).

     The final two essays deal with votives. The first by Helen
Nagy considers "Divinities in the context of sacrifice and cult
on Caeretan votive terracottas". She identifies four main types
from Vignaccia in Caere, apparently discovered in 1885 (p. 220 n.
4): Artumes sacrificing; seated divine figures; seated divinities
with musical attendants; and seated couple in naiskos. As all
four types represent a goddess, Nagy suggests a female divinity
to the sanctuary.

     Jean MacIntosh Turfa's contribution, "Anatomical votives and
Italian medical traditions", is a sophisticated, though
speculative, discussion of votives and their interpretation. She
considers the assumption that anatomical votives were "petitions
or thank-offerings for healing or fecundity" (p. 224). Hands, for
example, are considered as "<i>pars pro toto</i> expressions of
willingness to devote one's actions, travels, and so on to the
god" (p. 224). She associates terracotta votives as "probably not
the gifts of aristocrats, or of slaves, but an inexpensive
commodity made available for a class, perhaps socially equivalent
to the Roman <i>plebs</i>" (pp. 224-25). The moulding of the
organs provides an insight into growing anatomical knowledge,
although some intestinal organs are presented as "amorphous piles
of sausage" (p. 226). Problems of identification are raised: a
testis for example had been identified as an ovary, placenta or
bladder (p. 236 n. 33). There is a detailed discussion of votives
representing the uterus. In particular a uterus model in
Manchester (but without provenance) raises the possibility of
post-mortem Caesarean section. This is discussed against the
background of laws surrounding the burial of pregnant women, as
well as the people who might have been present at the birth.
MacIntosh Turfa draws attention to such models appearing in major
urban centres and goes on to speculate, "it is tempting to
suppose the existence of maternity clinics or hospitals in these
cities or cult centres, but there is no archaeological or
epigraphic evidence for this as yet" (p. 230). As "there are
simply too many uteri in Etruscan and Italian sanctuaries to
represent thanks for post-mortem deliveries", it is suggested
that they were given "in thanks for having just become pregnant,
and anticipating a happy outcome" (p. 233).

     A volume such as this illustrates the state of Etruscan
studies in North America and Europe (and especially Scandinavia).
Although there is evidence of the descriptive--and this is
important in presenting newly excavated material--some
contributors have attempted to adopt a range of interpretative
approaches, especially in the area of viewing and
contextualisation. Interestingly there is little discussion of
attribution except in passing. This reviewer was amused at the
catalogue entry for the Etruscan hydria in the Constantini
Collection in Fiesole which was attributed to the "workshop of
the Micali Painter" by G. Camporeale; in contrast Nigel Spivey is
quoted as saying that it is "neither by nor near the Micali
Painter" and that it was "too dull to merit" classification (pp.
144-45 under no. 1). It hardly needs pointing out that
attribution is totally irrelvant to the subject of the chapter.

     If there is a weakness in the volume it lies in the design.
A short summary and plan of Murlo could helpfully have been
included at the beginning of Part 1; a plan of the monumental
building does not appear until chapter 3 (p. 16). Moreover
illustrations are often separated from the text where they are
discussed; this is particularly true of Kyle Phillips' own
chapter which includes a catalogue. Annette Rathje's discussion
of the terracotta frieze plaques lacks any illustrations at all.
Notes appear at the end of each chapter rather than at the end of
the book or as footnotes. Moreover standardised chapter titles
for Part 1 might have avoided some contributors feeling that
Poggio Civitate needed to be qualified by adding (Murlo).

     There is much in this volume to recommend it, and in
particular three essays stand out: Small, Rathje and MacIntosh
Turfa. The wide range of issues which covered--including early
contacts with the Greeks, architectural decoration, "reading"
visual images--make a worthy volume in honor of Kyle Phillips.